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Kháubaḍų
General Information I'm getting more experimental with this one. I want to make a language heavily based in connotation and word specificity. Phonology and Orthography Phonemes Allophony The voiceless, apirated liquid/approx.'s often fortify to fricatives (i.e., > ɬʰ , > ꞎ̥ʰ , > çʰ). In unstressed syllables, the standard /a, a:, ã, ã:/ become /ɐ, ʌ:, ɐ̃, ʌ̃:/ or /ə, ʌ:, ə̃, ɐ̃:/ in respective open and closed syllables. Currently developing is the allophonic rendering of breathy-voice fricatives as implosives (i.e., > b̺͡vˤ , > d͡zˤ , > d͡ʑˤ , > ɖ͡ʐˤ , > ʁˤ) and breathy-voice plosives to pharyngealized plosives (i.e., > bˤ , > dˤ , > ɖˤ , > ɢˤ). Writing System Kháubaḍu is written with devanagari (which functions as a kind of hiragana/katakana to the hanzi) and traditional hanzi characters. There is also an official romanization for Kháubaḍų. Note that devanagari as a writing system has many ligatures in which letters combine. Abugida Each consonant symbol is assumed to have the vowel /a/ as its base. As a place-holder consonant, ह, ha, will be used for vowels. The list for vowels will have the order: 1, devanagari full vowel, 2, devanagari diacritic, and 3, romanization (consonant will just have 2 and 3, re-labled as 1 and 2). : Vowels : Consonants : Characters As Japanese does with hiragana and kanji, Kháudaḍų uses traditional hanzi characters to represent full words. Phonotactics #Voiced plosives cannot end words #Consonants of contrasting voicing cannot be placed adjecent to each other #Aspired and breathy-voice consonants cannot be the first in a consonant cluster #All consonants can be in a double consonant cluster (given they follow the above restrictions) #Liquid/Approx. can still follow a double consonant cluster as long as there is a following syllable with a vowel and that is an open syllable #{l , ɭ , n, m} can be syllabic Grammar 'Nouns' Nouns use a rudimentary suffix system to show relationships to the verb. Even more simple, adjectives do not take any suffixes or markers at all, other than that they must follow their head noun directly. Declension is focused around Kháubaḍų's alignment, only determining who does what in relation to the verb. This can be interpreted as declining to 5 cases: nominative, accusative, ergative, absolutive, oblique. *Oblique I: ''-ų'' *Oblique II: ''-∅'' (voiced consonants are unvoiced finally) *Transitive **Ergative (agent) : ''-arū'' **Accusative (patient) : ''-az'' *Intransitive **Absolutive (subject + patient) : ''-ul'' **Nominative (subject + agent) : ''-ajuk'' Oblique I is when a noun has no relation to the verb and is simply being pointed out (although, this could be interpreted as the agent to a copula), i.e., when no verb is present or in a prepositional phrase. Oblique II is used in copular constructions and when identifying a noun lexically. Ergative and Accusative in transitive verbs lables which noun is which as, being a fluid-S language, either noun could be the subject depending on tone and position in the sentence. Intransitive clauses without a labled subject insinuate that anyone could have done the action or the action was accidental. Absolutive, lables a noun in an intransitive clause that is related in some way to the action taking place but insinuates that the noun was not involved or did not cause the action taking place (the latter can also be a person). The Nominative is the subject and agent of the intransitive verb, insinuating intent of doing the verb and being the subject of it; conversely with Absolutive, the Nominative can also insinuate causative. In terms of plurality, nouns are divided into three classes: #Adjective-based #Form-based #Alternate Adjective-based nouns are those which have no plural form and require certain adjectives to express plurality. Form-based nouns are those which change form depending on plurality, usually because their plural form can mean something different but are still recognizably similar. Alternate nouns are those which have different stems for singular and plural forms. These are nouns which are understood as completely different from their singular counterparts. An example which is the same in English is the difference between I'' and ''We where I'' is considared a different word completely from ''We, although the latter is simply the plural of the former. 'Pronouns' : Personal 'Verbs' Verbs do not conjugate to person or number, tense is adverbial or by particle, aspect is by particle, voice is marked on nouns rather than verbs, and mood are, too, by particle. Tense is determined overall by adverbs which come after the verb. It is important to note that the past is considered the base tense, not needing an adverb, rather than the present as in English. Tense is not rigidly defined and new tenses can be created and synthesized from other adverbs. Various aspects are indicated via particle. Note that the difference between "continuous" and "progressive" here is that continuous means that the action is unevolving and stagnant whereas that progressive means that the actions is evolving and changing. "Historic" means that the actions had begun a while back, contrasting to "inchoative" which means that the action had begun at the moment of being said. "Near-finished" means that the action is close to being done at the moment of being said. Like Aspect, Mood is determined by particle. Each verb is required to have one. *Indicative: ∅ *Obligatory/Imperative : ka *Optative/Desiderative/Volative : kyų *Jussive/Hortative : bro *Potential/Epistemic/Permissive : će Syntax 'Phrases' : Noun Phrase Kháubaḍų is strongly head-initial, meaning that the noun will always be the first word in a noun phrase. This is followed its modifiers, in the order of possessives, adjectives, and postpositions 1. haǰų bak bę̄ğa hō boy.OBLI his big to 子男उँ बक् 大 हौ "to his big boy" 2. kǫmblų ek gḷhes hō house.OBLI their red to 房家उँ एक् 红 हौ "to their red house" : Adjective and Adverbial Phrases As shown in Noun Phrase, adjectives will follow their head noun as a second order. However, Kháubaḍų prefers not to use more than two adjectives at a time, instead preferring to use secondary clauses or other constructions. Adverbs act in a similar manner in that they directly follow verbs (before tense, aspect, or mood markers). The first type of possible adverb is one which can only appear as an adverb (i.e., tense or mood markers, temporal adverbs, &c). The second, and most common, ones are those which come from adjectives; they are formed by taking the plain adjectives and adding the suffix ''-e'', written at 式, to the end, replacing the vowel if it ends in a vowel and adding on to a final consonant. If there are multiple adverbs, the extras will go at the end of the entire verb phrase. 1. mraźų gḷhes wall.OBLI red 牆उँ 紅 "the red wall" 2. mraźų bę̄ğa gḷhes wall.OBLI big red 牆उँ 大 紅 "the big, red wall" 3. mraźų gąhu gḷhes l pasteṣ wall.OBLI ugly red and big 牆उँ 醜 紅 ल् 大 "the big, red, ugly wall" 4. ǰarkha bhae nħe vam pokhe sfay run quick.ADV PAST.HOD PROG.INCH.ONG 跑 速式 नेःवम् पखेस्फ़य् "he began to be running quickly" : Genitive Phrase The possessee is regarded as the head and comes before the possessor. Possessor nouns take the oblique II case and are linked with the clitic ke, written as 的. "Ke" changes form depending on what starts the following word. *vowel, approximants > k' *m, mh, n, nh, ɲ, ɲh, ŋ, ŋh > ŋi *k, g, kh, gh > x' *others > ke 1. haǰų ke- funs boy.OBLI GEN-ball.OBLII 子男उँ 的 球 "the boy's ball" 2. kǫmblų ŋi- mrać house.OBLI GEN-wall.OBLII 房家उँ 的 牆 "the house's walls" 3. ċānų x'- gamta dog.OBLI GEN-stick.OBLII 犬उँ 的 棍 "the dog's stick" : Verbial Phrase Verb phrases all consist of one to two verbs (two verbs will only appear in the same phrase if they are complementary verbs, which semantically combine) and an optional adverb directly after the verb. Passives are formed by, with an intransitive verb, putting the respective noun in the absolutive case. The copula functions to link two words together (be they noun or adjective); the structure is SVO, but all nouns take the Oblique II case. 1. xojuk banźū ṇħe ya I.NOM eat PAST SIMP.NRF.PERF 我दृुक् 食 नेः य "I ate" 2. xorū banźū ṇħe ya I.ERG eat PAST SIMP.NRF.PERF 我रू 食 नेः य "I ate fish" 3. xorū gyaz bhae banźū ṇħe ya I.ERG fish.ACC quick.ADV eat PAST SIMP.NRF.PERF 我रू 魚 速式 食 नेः य "I ate the fish quickly" 4. gyul banźū ṇħe ya fish.ABS eat PAST SIMP.NRF.PERF 魚उल् 食 नेः य "The fish was eaten" 5. hač hā bę̄ğa man.OBLI COP big 男 是 大 "The man is small Clauses : Independent Clause Independent clauses necessitate only an NP (however, PP's, postpositional phrases, cannot be standalone). 1. ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Category:Languages